1901

Emil A. von Behring (Germany), for work on serum therapy against diphtheria

1902

Sir Ronald Ross (U.K.), for work on malaria

1903

Niels R. Finsen (Denmark), for his treatment of lupus vulgaris with concentrated light rays

1904

Ivan P. Pavlov (U.S.S.R.), for work on the physiology of digestion

1905

Robert Koch (Germany), for work on tuberculosis

1906

Camillo Golgi (Italy) and Santiago Ramón y Cajal (Spain), for work on structure of the nervous system

1907

Charles L. A. Laveran (France), for work with protozoa in the generation of disease

1908

Paul Ehrlich (Germany) and Elie Metchnikoff (U.S.S.R.), for work on immunity

1909

Theodor Kocher (Switzerland), for work on the thyroid gland

1910

Albrecht Kossel (Germany), for achievements in the chemistry of the cell

1911

Allvar Gullstrand (Sweden), for work on the dioptrics of the eye

1912

Alexis Carrel (France), for work on vascular ligature and grafting of blood vessels and organs

1913

Charles Richet (France), for work on anaphylaxy

1914

Robert Bárány (Austria), for work on physiology and pathology of the vestibular system

1919

Jules Bordet (Belgium), for discoveries in connection with immunity

1920

August Krogh (Denmark), for discovery of regulation of capillaries' motor mechanism

1922

In1923, the1922 prize was shared by Archibald V. Hill (U.K.), for discovery relating to heat-production in muscles; and Otto Meyerhof (Germany), for correlation between consumption of oxygen and production of lactic acid in muscles

1923

Sir Frederick Banting (Canada) and John J. R. Macleod (Scotland), for discovery of insulin

1924

Willem Einthoven (Netherlands), for discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram

1926

Johannes Fibiger (Denmark), for discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma

1927

Julius Wagner-Jauregg (Austria), for use of malaria inoculation in treatment of dementia paralytica

1928

Charles Nicolle (France), for work on typhus exanthematicus

1929

Christiaan Eijkman (Netherlands), for discovery of the antineuritic vitamins; and Sir Frederick Hopkins (U.K.), for discovery of growth-promoting vitamins

1930

Karl Landsteiner (U.S.), for discovery of human blood groups

1931

Otto H. Warburg (Germany), for discovery of the character and mode of action of the respiratory ferment

1932

Sir Charles Sherrington (U.K.) and Edgar D. Adrian (U.S.), for discoveries of the function of the neuron

1933

Thomas H. Morgan (U.S.), for discoveries on hereditary function of the chromosomes

1934

George H. Whipple, George R. Minot, and William P. Murphy (U.S.), for discovery of liver therapy against anemias

1935

Hans Spemann (Germany), for discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic development

1936

Sir Henry Dale (U.K.) and Otto Loewi (Germany), for discoveries on chemical transmission of nerve impulses

1937

Albert Szent-Györgyi von Nagyrapolt (Hungary), for discoveries on biological combustion

1938

Corneille Heymans (Belgium), for determining importance of sinus and aorta mechanisms in the regulation of respiration

1939

Gerhard Domagk (Germany), for antibacterial effect of prontocilate

1943

Henrik Dam (Denmark) and Edward A. Doisy (U.S.), for analysis of vitamin K

1944

Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Spencer Gasser (both U.S.), for work on functions of the nerve threads

1945

Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain, and Sir Howard Florey (all U.K.), for discovery of penicillin

1946

Herman J. Muller (U.S.), for hereditary effects of X-rays on genes

1947

Carl F. and Gerty T. Cori (U.S.), for work on animal starch metabolism; Bernardo A. Houssay (Argentina), for study of pituitary

1948

Paul Mueller (Switzerland), for discovery of insect-killing properties of DDT

1949

Walter Rudolf Hess (Switzerland), for research on brain control of body; and Antonio Caetano de Abreu Freire Egas Moniz (Portugal), for development of brain operation

1950

Philip S. Hench, Edward C. Kendall (both U.S.), and Tadeus Reichstein (Switzerland), for discoveries about hormones of adrenal cortex

1951

Max Theiler (South Africa), for development of anti-yellow-fever vaccine

1952

Selman A. Waksman (U.S.), for co-discovery of streptomycin

1953

Fritz A. Lipmann (Germany-U.S.) and Hans Adolph Krebs (Germany-U.K.), for studies of living cells

1954

John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller, and Frederick C. Robbins (all U.S.), for work with cultivation of polio virus

1955

Hugo Theorell (Sweden), for work on oxidation enzymes

1956

Dickinson W. Richards, Jr., André F. Cournand (both U.S.), and Werner Forssmann (Germany), for new techniques in treating heart disease

1957

Daniel Bovet (Italy), for development of drugs to relieve allergies and relax muscles during surgery

1958

Joshua Lederberg (U.S.), for work with genetic mechanisms; George W. Beadie and Edward L. Tatum (both U.S.), for discovering how genes transmit hereditary characteristics

1959

Severo Ochoa and Arthur Kornberg (both U.S.), for discoveries related to compounds within chromosomes that play a vital role in heredity

1960

Sir Macfarlane Burnet (Australia) and Peter Brian Medawar (U.K.), for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance

1961

Georg von Bekesy (U.S.), for discoveries about physical mechanisms of stimulation within cochlea

1962

James D. Watson (U.S.), Maurice H. F. Wilkins, and Francis H. C. Crick (both U.K.), for determining structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

1963

Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, Andrew Fielding Huxley (both U.K.), and Sir John Carew Eccles (Australia), for research on nerve cells

1964

Konrad E. Bloch (U.S.) and Feodor Lynen (Germany), for research on mechanism and regulation of cholesterol and fatty-acid metabolism

1965

François Jacob, André Lwolff, and Jacques Monod (all France), for study of regulatory activities in body cells

1966

Charles Brenton Huggins (U.S.), for studies in hormone treatment of cancer of prostate; Francis Peyton Rous (U.S.), for discovery of tumor-producing viruses

1967

Haldan K. Hartline, George Wald, and Ragnar Granit (all U.S.), for work on human eye

1968

Robert W. Holley, Har Gobind Khorana, and Marshall W. Nirenberg (all U.S.), for studies of genetic code

1969

Max Delbruck, Alfred D. Hershey, and Salvador E. Luria (all U.S.), for study of mechanism of virus infection in living cells

1970

Julius Axelrod (U.S.), Ulf S. von Euler (Sweden), and Sir Bernard Katz (U.K.), for studies of how nerve impulses are transmitted within the body

1971

Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. (U.S.), for research on how hormones work

1972

Gerald M. Edelman (U.S.), and Rodney R. Porter (U.K.), for research on the chemical structure and nature of antibodies

1973

Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz (both Austria), and Nikolaas Tinbergen (Netherlands), for their studies of individual and social behavior patterns

1974

George E. Palade, Christian de Duve (both U.S.), and Albert Claude (Belgium), for contributions to understanding inner workings of living cells

1975

David Baltimore, Howard M. Temin, and Renato Dulbecco (all U.S.), for work in interaction between tumor viruses and genetic material of the cell

1976

Baruch S. Blumberg and D. Carleton Gajdusek (both U.S.), for discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases

1977

Rosalyn S. Yalow, Roger C. L. Guillemin, and Andrew V. Schally (all U.S.), for research in role of hormones in chemistry of the body

1978

Daniel Nathans, Hamilton Smith (both U.S.), and Werner Arber (Switzerland), for discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics

1979

Allan McLeod Cormack (U.S.) and Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield (U.K.), for developing computed axial tomography (CAT scan) X-ray technique

1980

Baruj Benacerraf, George D. Snell (both U.S.), and Jean Dausset (France), for discoveries that explain how the structure of cells relates to organ transplants and diseases

1981

Roger W. Sperry, David H. Hubel (both U.S.), and Torsten N. Wiesel (Sweden), for studies vital to understanding the organization and functioning of the brain

1982

Sune Bergstrom, Bengt Samuelsson (both Sweden), and John R. Vane (U.K.), for research in prostaglandins, hormonelike substances involved in a wide range of illnesses

1983

Barbara McClintock (U.S.), for her discovery of mobile genes in the chromosomes of a plant that change the future generations of plants they produce

1984

Cesar Milstein (U.K./Argentina), Georges J. F. Kohler (West Germany), and Niels K. Jerne (U.K./Denmark), for their work in immunology

1985

Michael S. Brown and Joseph L. Goldstein (both U.S.), for their work, which has drastically widened our understanding of the cholesterol metabolism and increased our possibilities to prevent and treat atherosclerosis and heart attacks

1986

Rita Levi-Montalcini (dual U.S./Italy) and Stanley Cohen (U.S.), for their contributions to the understanding of substances that influence cell growth

1987

Susumu Tonegawa (Japan), for his discoveries of how the body can suddenly marshal its immunological defenses against millions of different disease agents that it has never encountered before

1988

Gertrude B. Elion, George H. Hitchings (both U.S.), and Sir James Black (U.K.), for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment

1989

J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus (both U.S.), for their unifying theory of cancer development

1990

Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas (both U.S.), for their pioneering work in transplants

1991

Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann (both Germany), for their research, particularly for the development of a technique called patch clamp

1992

Edmond H. Fischer and Edwin G. Krebs (both U.S.), for their discovery of a regulatory mechanism affecting almost all cells

1993

Phillip A. Sharp (U.S.) and Richard J. Roberts (U.K.), for their independent discovery in1977 of "split genes"

1994

Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell (both U.S.), for discovery of G-proteins that help cells respond to outside signals

1995

Edward B. Lewis, Eric F. Wieschaus (both U.S.), and Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (Germany), for studies of the fruit fly that will help explain congenital malformations in humans

1996

Peter C. Doherty (Australia) and Rolf M. Zinkernagel (Switzerland), for discoveries about how the immune system recognizes virus-infected cells

1997

Stanley B. Prusiner (U.S.), for discovery of a new type of germ, called prions, that causes degenerative brain disorders

1998

Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro, and Ferid Murad (all U.S.), for discovering that nitric oxide acts as a signal in the cardiovascular system