1901

Wilhelm K. Roentgen (Germany), for discovery of Roentgen rays

1902

Hendrik A. Lorentz and Pieter Zeeman (Netherlands), for work on influence of magnetism upon radiation

1903

A. Henri Becquerel (France), for work on spontaneous radioactivity; and Pierre and Marie Curie (France), for study of radiation

1904

John Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) (U.K.), for discovery of argon in investigating gas density

1905

Philipp Lenard (Germany), for work with cathode rays

1906

Sir Joseph Thomson (U.K.), for investigations on passage of electricity through gases

1907

Albert A. Michelson (U.S.), for spectroscopic and metrologic investigations

1908

Gabriel Lippmann (France), for method of reproducing colors by photography

1909

Guglielmo Marconi (Italy) and Ferdinand Braun (Germany), for development of wireless

1910

Johannes D. van der Waals (Netherlands), for work with the equation of state for gases and liquids

1911

Wilhelm Wien (Germany), for his laws governing the radiation of heat

1912

Gustaf Dalén (Sweden), for discovery of automatic regulators used in lighting lighthouses and light buoys

1913

Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes (Netherlands), for work leading to production of liquid helium

1914

Max von Laue (Germany), for discovery of diffraction of Roentgen rays passing through crystals

1915

Sir William Bragg and William L. Bragg (U.K.), for analysis of crystal structure by X-rays

1917

Charles G. Barkla (U.K.), for discovery of Roentgen radiation of the elements

1918

Max Planck (Germany), discoveries in connection with quantum theory

1919

Johannes Stark (Germany), discovery of Doppler effect in Canal rays and decomposition of spectrum lines by electric fields

1920

Charles E. Guillaume (Switzerland), for discoveries of anomalies in nickel-steel alloys

1921

Albert Einstein (Germany), for discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect

1922

Niels Bohr (Denmark), for investigation of structure of atoms and radiations emanating from them

1923

Robert A. Millikan (U.S.), for work on elementary charge of electricity and photoelectric phenomena

1924

Karl M. G. Siegbahn (Sweden), for investigations in X-ray spectroscopy

1925

James Franck and Gustav Hertz (Germany), for discovery of laws governing impact of electrons upon atoms

1926

Jean B. Perrin (France), for work on discontinuous structure of matter and discovery of the equilibrium of sedimentation

1927

Arthur H. Compton (U.S.), for discovery of Compton phenomenon; and Charles T. R. Wilson (U.K.), for method of perceiving paths taken by electrically charged particles

1928

In1929, the1928 prize was awarded to Sir Owen Richardson (U.K.), for work on the phenomenon of thermionics and discovery of the Richardson Law

1929

Prince Louis Victor de Broglie (France), for discovery of the wave character of electrons

1930

Sir Chandrasekhara Raman (India), for work on diffusion of light and discovery of the Raman effect

1932

In1933, the prize for1932 was awarded to Werner Heisenberg (Germany), for creation of the quantum mechanics

1933

Erwin Schrödinger (Austria) and Paul A. M. Dirac (U.K.), for discovery of new fertile forms of the atomic theory

1935

James Chadwick (U.K.), for discovery of the neutron

1936

Victor F. Hess (Austria), for discovery of cosmic radiation; and Carl D. Anderson (U.S.), for discovery of the positron

1937

Clinton J. Davisson (U.S.) and George P. Thomson (U.K.), for discovery of diffraction of electrons by crystals

1938

Enrico Fermi (Italy), for identification of new radioactivity elements and discovery of nuclear reactions effected by slow neutrons

1939

Ernest Orlando Lawrence (U.S.), for development of the cyclotron

1943

Otto Stern (U.S.), for detection of magnetic momentum of protons

1944

Isidor Isaac Rabi (U.S.), for work on magnetic movements of atomic particles

1945

Wolfgang Pauli (Austria), for work on atomic fissions

1946

Percy Williams Bridgman (U.S.), for studies and inventions in high-pressure physics

1947

Sir Edward Appleton (U.K.), for discovery of layer that reflects radio short waves in the ionosphere

1948

Patrick M. S. Blackett (U.K.), for improvement on Wilson chamber and discoveries in cosmic radiation

1949

Hideki Yukawa (Japan), for mathematical prediction, in1935, of the meson

1950

Cecil Frank Powell (U.K.), for method of photographic study of atom nucleus, and for discoveries about mesons

1951

Sir John Douglas Cockcroft (U.K.) and Ernest T. S. Walton (Ireland), for work in1932 on transmutation of atomic nuclei

1952

Edward Mills Purcell and Felix Bloch (U.S.), for work in measurement of magnetic fields in atomic nuclei

1953

Fritz Zernike (Netherlands), for development of "phase contrast" microscope

1954

Max Born (U.K.), for work in quantum mechanics; and Walther Bothe (Germany), for work in cosmic radiation

1955

Polykarp Kusch and Willis E. Lamb, Jr. (U.S.), for atomic measurements

1956

William Shockley, Walter H. Brattain, and John Bardeen (all U.S.), for developing electronic transistor

1957

Tsung Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang (China), for disproving principle of conservation of parity

1958

Pavel A. Cherenkov, Ilya M. Frank, and Igor E. Tamm (all U.S.S.R.), for work resulting in development of cosmic-ray counter

1959

Emilio Segre and Owen Chamberlain (both U.S.), for demonstrating the existence of the anti-proton

1960

Donald A. Glaser (U.S.), for invention of "bubble chamber" to study subatomic particles

1961

Robert Hofstadter (U.S.), for determination of shape and size of atomic nucleus; Rudolf Mössbauer (Germany), for method of producing and measuring recoil-free gamma rays

1962

Lev D. Landau (U.S.S.R.), for his theories about condensed matter

1963

Eugene Paul Wigner, Maria Goeppert Mayer (both U.S.), and J. Hans D. Jensen (Germany), for research on structure of atom and its nucleus

1964

Charles Hard Townes (U.S.), Nikolai G. Basov, and Aleksandr M. Prochorov (both U.S.S.R.), for developing maser and laser principle of producing high-intensity radiation

1965

Richard P. Feynman, Julian S. Schwinger (both U.S.), and Shinichiro Tomonaga (Japan), for research in quantum electrodynamics

1966

Alfred Kastler (France), for work on energy levels inside atom

1967

Hans A. Bethe (U.S.), for work on energy production of stars

1968

Luis Walter Alvarez (U.S.), for study of subatomic particles

1969

Murray Gell-Mann (U.S.), for study of subatomic particles

1970

Hannes Alfvén (Sweden), for theories in plasma physics; and Louis Néel (France), for discoveries in antiferromagnetism and ferromagnetism

1971

Dennis Gabor (U.K.), for invention of holographic method of three-dimensional imagery

1972

John Bardeen, Leon N. Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer (all U.S.), for theory of superconductivity, where electrical resistance in certain metals vanishes above absolute zero temperature

1973

Ivar Giaever (U.S.), Leo Esaki (Japan), and Brian D. Josephson (U.K.), for theories that have advanced and expanded the field of miniature electronics

1974

Antony Hewish (U.K.), for discovery of pulsars; Martin Ryle (U.K.), for using radiotelescopes to probe outer space with high degree of precision

1975

James Rainwater (U.S.), Ben Mottelson, and Aage N. Bohr (both Denmark), for showing that the atomic nucleus is asymmetrical

1976

Burton Richter and Samuel C. C. Ting (both U.S.), for discovery of subatomic particles known as J and psi

1977

Philip W. Anderson, John H. Van Vleck (both U.S.), and Nevill F. Mott (U.K.), for work underlying computer memories and electronic devices

1978

Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson (both U.S.), for work in cosmic microwave radiation; Piotr L. Kapitsa (U.S.S.R.), for basic inventions and discoveries in low-temperature physics

1979

Steven Weinberg, Sheldon L. Glashow (both U.S.), and Abdus Salam (Pakistan), for developing theory that electromagnetism and the "weak" force, which causes radioactive decay in some atomic nuclei, are facets of the same phenomenon

1980

James W. Cronin and Val L. Fitch (both U.S.), for work concerning the asymmetry of subatomic particles

1981

Nicolaas Bloembergen, Arthur L. Schawlow (both U.S.), and Kai M. Siegbahn (Sweden), for developing technologies with lasers and other devices to probe the secrets of complex forms of matter

1982

Kenneth G. Wilson (U.S.), for analysis of changes in matter under pressure and temperature

1983

Subrahmanyam Chandrasekhar and William A. Fowler (both U.S.), for complementary research on processes involved in the evolution of stars

1984

Carlo Rubbia (Italy) and Simon van der Meer (Netherlands), for their role in discovering three subatomic particles, a step toward developing a single theory to account for all natural forces

1985

Klaus von Klitzing (Germany), for developing an exact way of measuring electrical conductivity

1986

Ernst Ruska, Gerd Binnig (both Germany), and Heinrich Rohrer (Switzerland), for work on microscopes

1987

K. Alex Müller (Switzerland) and J. Georg Bednorz (Germany), for their discovery of high-temperature superconductors

1988

Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz, and Jack Steinberger (all U.S.), for research that improved the understanding of elementary particles and forces

1989

Norman F. Ramsey (U.S.), for work leading to development of the atomic clock, and Hans G. Dehmelt (U.S.) and Wolfgang Paul (Germany), for developing methods to isolate atoms and subatomic particles

1990

Richard E. Taylor (Canada), Jerome I. Friedman, and Dr. Henry W. Kendall (both U.S.), for their "breakthrough in our understanding of matter" that confirmed the reality of quarks

1991

Pierre-Gilles de Gennes (France), for his discoveries about the ordering of molecules in substances ranging from "super" glue to an exotic form of liquid helium

1992

George Charpak (France), for his inventions of particle detectors

1993

Joseph H. Taylor and Russell A. Hulse (both U.S.), for their discovery of a binary pulsar

1994

Clifford G. Shull (U.S.) and Bertram N. Brockhouse (Canada), for adapting beams of neutrons as probes to explore the atomic structure of matter

1995

Martin L. Perl and Frederick Reines (both U.S.), for their discoveries of "two of nature's most remarkable subatomic particles"—the tau and the neutrino

1996

David M. Lee, Robert C. Richardson, and Douglas D. Osheroff (all U.S.), for their discovery of superfluity in helium-3

1997

Steven Chu, William D. Phillips (both U.S.), and Claude Cohen-Tannoudji (France), for developing a method to cool and trap atoms using light from lasers

1998

Robert B. Laughlin (U.S.), Horst L. Störmer (Germany), and Daniel C. Tsui (U.S.), for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations